Liu Zhiming
Professor and Chief Researcher
Chinese Academy of Social Sciences
China

Friction between China and Japan has broken out in various fields during the past several years, serious exacerbating public opinion in each country toward the other. Particularly in the spring of 2005, anti-Japanese demonstrations broke out in many parts of China, intensifying antagonism toward the Japanese to an unprecedented high.

The principal cause of rising anti-Japanese sentiment is the political clash between the two countries, involving history education and other issues. However, it is not unrelated to mass media stance in covering the issues and widening gap in bilateral communication.

The following is an analysis of broadcasting roughly before and after the anti-Japanese protests by China Central Television (hereinafter called CCTV) to elucidate the role of television in aggravating Chinese antagonism toward Japan.

1. The Developments Leading to the Anti-Japanese Demonstrations in 2005

The anti-Japanese demonstrations in spring of 2005 can be regarded eruption of antagonism that the Chinese had harbored against Japan in recent years. This was triggered by the signature collection campaign against Japan becoming permanent member of the Security Council and the debate over history textbooks.

The signature collection campaign began on February 28, 2005, at the urging of the Global Alliance for Preserving the History of WWII in Asia (GA) (sign.sjwar.org) in the United States. The drive took place chiefly outside China but collected 300,000 signatures as of March 17. Because it failed to gain wider support, it solicited the cooperation of the anti-Japanese website China 918 Patriotic Net located in Shanghai. The network set up its own signature collection site (china918.net/qm) on March 19 and at the same time solicited the participation of major online networks in China.

Figure 1 China 918 Patriotic Net's signature collection site

On March 23, China's leading portals SINA.com, SOHU.com and 163.com joined the campaign, spreading the collection drive across the country. The number of people who contributed through the 3 portals reached 3 million by March 27 and 11.5 million by March 29.

The "Japan history textbook issue" surfaced subsequently and triggered the demonstrations. Protests took place first on April 2 and 3, with street demonstrations and attacks on Japanese supermarkets in Chengdu City, Sichuan Province, and Shenzhen City, Guangdong Province. This was followed by anti-Japanese demonstrations in Beijing on April 9, in Guangzhou on the 10th and in Shanghai on the 16th. Demonstrations took place in at least 8 cities, including Shenyang City, Liaoning Province, Xiamen City, Fuchian Province, and Shenzhen City, Guangdong Province, on the 17th.

With the outbreak of these demonstrations, the Chinese government finally moved to control the situation. A report on the state of Sino-Japanese relations was made by Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing on the 19th, followed by meetings organized in Sichuan and Zhejiang provinces, Beijing, Shanghai, Guangdong and many other parts of China by a mission organized by the Chinese Communist Party's Central Propaganda Department and Ministry of Foreign Affairs in April 21-23. Communist Party and government officials have spoken on international affairs, the history and current state of Sino-Japanese relations and China's policy on Japan in front of university faculty and students.Simultaneously, the Ministry of Public Security issued a statement, warning harshly on the activities. This prompted anti-Japanese activities to subside gradually.

2.Change in TV and Newspaper Coverage Before and After the Demonstrations

Television coverage around the time of the anti-Japanese demonstrations is studied chiefly in coverage by CCTV's "National News," China's most influential news program broadcast every day on 7:00 to 7:30 p.m.

National News features approximately 18 news articles per broadcast, of which 13 are domestic news and 5 are from overseas.

In the five-month span from January to May 2005, the number of related news articles was only 2 in January, 5 in February and 6 in March, accounting for only 1% of total news articles. This suggests the low level of interest toward Japan.

With the outbreak of anti-Japanese demonstrations in April, Japan-related news grew rapidly, reaching as many as 35 news articles or 6% of news coverage. In May, coverage fell once again to 23.

Figure 2 Total Number of News Articles and Change in Japan-Related News Coverage (January-June 2005)

In terms of news topics, the 13 news articles broadcast from January through March were mainly objective reports on domestic and international developments related to Japan. They are divided roughly into three categories. One is domestic Japanese news. They featured, for example, news on the 10th anniversary of the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake, the earthquake in Fukuoka, opening of the Chubu International Airport in Aichi Prefecture and opening of Expo 2005 Aichi. The other news category is Japan's foreign relations. The 5 headlines included Japan's demand for repatriation of the Northern Territories from Russia, the six-party talks and South Korea's criticism of Japan over the history textbook issue. The third is on relations between China and Japan, featuring to news articles such as the teleconference between the foreign ministers of the two countries. There was no mention of Chinese antagonism toward Japan, such as the movement of opposing Japan's membership in the Security Council.

In April, reports on Sino-Japanese relations increased dramatically. Of the 35 Japan-related news articles, 28 focused on bilateral issues and accounted for 80% of the total. In addition, the majority concerns "publicity on the Sino-Japanese situation by the Communist Party's Central Propaganda Department and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, after outbreak of the demonstrations. The emphasis was more on the importance of relations with Japan, rather than criticism of Japan.

Table 1 List of Major News Headlines on Sino-Japanese Relations in April

Dalian Week at the China Pavilion, Expo 2005 Aichi

Tenth China-Japan Friendship Talks in Nagano

Tang Jiaxuan Holds Meeting with Japanese Foreign Minister Machimura

Foreign Minister Li Holds Meeting with Japanese Foreign Minister Machimura

Report on Sino-Japanese Relations by Foreign Minister Li Zhaosing

Meetings on the Sino-Japanese Political Situation Held in Tianjin and Shanghai

Chairman of China-Japan Friendship Association Emphasized the Meaning of Bilateral Friendship

Ministry of Public Security Issues Statement on Anti-Japanese Demonstrations

Editorials by Economic Daily and Guang Ming Daily

Executive Director of China-Japan Cultural Exchange Association: Bilateral Cultural Exchange Is Extremely Important for Relations between the Two Countries

Study into "Cold Political Relations and Hot Economic Ties" between China and Japan – Commerce Minister Bo

Chairman of the Association for the Promotion of International Trade, Japan: China-Japan Trade Cooperation Benefits Both Countries

China-Japan Association Chairman: Building Stable and Sound Bilateral Relations Extremely Important

Chinese President Hu Jintao Meets Japanese Prime Minister Koizumi

President Hu States Position in Japanese Relations at Press Conference

Response from Various Sectors: Closer Economic Cooperation with Japan Aids in Bilateral Growth and Improvement in Living Standards

Hu Statement on China-Japan Relations Trigger Huge Response

Japanese Government Rates Top Leader Meeting Highly

Economic Daily Commentary: Promote Sound Growth of China-Japan Relations from Macro Perspective

Hu Statement on China-Japan Relations Praised by Leaders of Various Sectors

ICC Secretary-General Speaks on China-Japan Relations

Xinhua News Agency Commentary: Step Toward the Future with History as Mirror

People's Daily Commentary: Fundamental Index in Promoting Stability & Growth in China-Japan Relations

Although soured relations between the two countries began to amend in the summit meeting held in Jakarta on April 23, statements by Japanese politicians denying Japan's responsibility in World War II and Prime Minister Koizumi's suggestion of continuing visits to Yasukuni Shrine aggravated the situation once again in May. For this reason, news articles belligerent toward Japan increased in National News in May, with the number of articles emphasizing the importance of bilateral relations decreasing to 4.

Comparison of Japanese news coverage by leading Chinese dailies in January-May 2005 shows very clearly the differences between the two media.

First, television began to cover Japan-related News in earnest only after outbreak of anti-Japanese demonstrations. On the other hand, newspapers had already been covering friction between the two countries and hostile activities by the general public one month earlier.

The total of news articles related to Japan in the eight leading newspapers was 300 each in January and February and increased by more than 200 to 553 in March. Of these, the topics of "possible Japanese membership in the UN Security Council" and "Japanese history textbook issue" accounted for the most part.

Table 2 Volume of Japan-Related News Coverage in 8 Dailies (January-May 2005)

	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May
新民晩報 XINMIN EVENING NEWS	83	58	111	161	143
環球時報 GLOBAL TIMES	61	51	86	87	82
北京青年報 BEIJING YOUTH DAILY	59	46	83	78	84
羊城晩報 YANGCHENG EVENING NEWS	34	58	80	89	82
人民日報 PEOPLE'S DAILY	47	31	54	97	52
華西都市報 HUAXI DAILY	32	23	73	54	67
新京報 THE BEIJING NEWS	36	31	51	45	33
国際先駆導報 INTERNATIONAL HERALD LEADER	17	13	15	30	12
Total	369	311	553	641	555

Next, newspapers were more inclined to run articles critical to Japan, compared to TV news.

The difference stems from the distinctive characteristics of TV media and newspaper. In addition it is not totally unrelated to the fact that stricter control was imposed on television compared to newspapers.

3.Japan as Portrayed in Documentary Programming

Until June 2005, the number of Japan-related documentary programs broadcast on CCTV's major news programs (Topics in Focus, News Probe, People in the News, Face to Face & World Watch) totaled 10. Of these, 5 were related to Japan's history awareness issue. Others were 3 related to China-Japan relations, 1 on cultural exchange and 1 on the territorial issue between Japan and South Korea.

Table 3 Japan-Related Documentaries Broadcast on CCTV

Program Name	Date	Title	Theme
焦点訪談 TOPICS IN FOCUS	April 25	Look into the Future from a Higher Perspective with History As Mirror	China-Japan relations
	June 9	Truth in History	History awareness issue
	June 10-11	Class A War Criminals in Yasukuni Shrine	History awareness issue
	April 28	Analysis of China-Japan Economic & Trade Relations	China-Japan relations
新聞調査 NEWS PROBE	April 6	New Debate over Japan's Textbook Issue	History awareness issue
新聞会客庁 PEOPLE IN THE NEWS	May 25	Tamaki Matsuoka: Person Gathering Evidences of the Nanjing Massacre	History awareness issue
	June 3	Interests behind the East Sea Dispute between China and Japan	China-Japan relations
	June 19	Ai Fukuhara: Japanese Idol in China	China-Japan exchange
面対面 FACE TO FACE	March 20	Dokdo or Takeshima?	Korea-Japan territorial issue
国際観察 WORLD WATCH	June 28	Japanese Emperor Prays for the Souls of the Dead in Saipan	History awareness issue

Of the 5 programs on the history issue, three were critical of Japan. In "New Debate over Japan's Textbook Issue," Chinese academics, the former Chinese ambassador to Japan, and the ambassador in South Korea were invited to speak on the Japanese government's approval of the revised Fuyosha textbook, denouncing the rightwing trend in Japan and action by its government.

Another program on the topic was "Class A War Criminals in Yasukuni Shrine." In a meeting of Liberal Democratic Party parliamentarians on May 26, Health, Welfare and Labor Vice Minister Masahiro Morioka announced his support of Prime Minister Koizumi's visit to Yasukuni Shrine, calling it "very good," and added that "The International Military Tribunal for the Far East" was one-sided trial in which the occupation forces conjured up crimes against peace and humanity. He went on further to say that the survivors of these criminals receive pension, and [Class A war criminals] are no longer criminals in Japan. The program was produced as a rebuttal to such arguments and was broadcast in two parts in "Topics in Focus" on June 10 and 11. Featuring comments by three experts, namely Professor Ma Chengyan of China University of Political Science and Law, Professor Tong Junan of the Chinese Academy of Social Science and Professor Song Zhiyong of Nankai University, the program introduced 14 Class A war criminals enshrined in Yasukuni and criticized the statement denying Japan's responsibility toward World War II and Prime Minister Koizumi's visits to the shrine. It concluded that a nation that is unable to see history as it is and does not repent its aggressive behavior cannot win the trust and respect of its neighbors and of the international community.

The third program is "Japanese Emperor Prays for the Souls of the Dead in Saipan," which focused on the visit by the Japanese Emperor and Empress to Saipan. In the case of Chinese newspaper media, many articles criticized the visit as "glossing over wartime aggression" and concluded that the visit by the Emperor "will provide huge support to Prime Minister Koizumi's visits to the Yasukuni Shrine." However, the TV media -- still comparatively critical of the visit -- evaluated the Emperor's behavior as showing an aspect of humanity and humanitarianism.

The remaining two programs shed light to private-sector action between the two countries over the historic awareness issue. "Tamaki Matsuoka: Person Gathering Evidences of the Nanjing Massacre" featured Mr. Tamaki Matsuoka, an elementary school teacher in Japan who continued to gather testimonies from survivors and other persons who experienced the Nanjing Massacre. It emphasized that there are people among the Japanese who actively pursue the issue of war responsibility. "Truth in History" showcased the project by academic experts in China, Japan and South Korea to produce a textbook on modern history, covering the production and editing process, the content of the textbook, the issues involved and the results.

The three programs on China-Japan relations include one showing the positive aspect of the relations and another featuring the negative side.

"Analysis of China-Japan Economic & Trade Relations" was produced as part of publicity of China-Japan situation, following the anti-Japan demonstrations. It looked into the history and the current state of economic and trade relations between the two countries and the importance of bilateral ties. It was produced with focus on coverage of 8 persons, including Deputy Chairman Xiao Xianfquian of the China-Japan Friendship Association. Representing the Japanese side was interviews with Mr. Keisuke Saito of the Japan-China Economic Association and Mr. Noriyoshi Ebara of JETRO Beijing Office.

"Interests behind the East Sea Dispute between China and Japan" had three academic experts from Beijing University and Tsinghua University to analyze the clash between the two countries over Chunxiao gas fields.Arguments on both sides were presented relatively objectively and maintained comparatively good balance vis-à-vis incendiary arguments seen in certain newspaper media to instigate confrontation.

In " Dokdo or Takeshima?" the dispute between Japan and South Korea over the islands known as Takeshima or Dokdo was analyzed objectively. "Ai Fukuhara: Japanese Idol in China" featured an interview with the table tennis player from Japan who is participating in the China Super League as member of the Liaoning team. The girl spoke of her life in China in very fluent Chinese.

4.Japan-Related Films Broadcast on TV

Because 2005 falls on the 60th anniversary of the end of World War II, many motion pictures and TV dramas on the war against Japan were produced in China. As the first installation of TV production on the topic, CCTV broadcast a drama series on the Chinese who were forcibly made to work in Japan during World War II, titled "Proof of Memory" in the primetime 8 p.m. time slot starting at the end of 2004 and attracted tremendous response. It is a story of the only survivor from the Chinese laborers who suffered a wide variety of hardships and pain in Japan, crossing the sea to Japan in search of evidence.

In 2005, many TV stations began to broadcast a tremendous number of films and dramas on the topic, including old productions. Even when restricted to CCTV Channel 6 (exclusively for movies) alone, a total of 38 related movies were aired between January and August. The possibility of the large number of films broadcast on TV linking to agitation of anti-Japanese sentiments cannot be denied.

In the breakdown of broadcast time by month, the number of films between January and July ranged between one to several films per month. Starting in August, the number grew rapidly and reached 22 in one month.

Figure 3 Breakdown of the Number of Films Broadcast on CCTV 6 by Month

Looking into the time period when these films were produced, the largest number (18) was produced in 1980-1999, followed by 15 produced before 1980. Only 5 were created after 2000. Films produced before the 1980s were very often focused on The Chinese Communist Party and guerilla forces fighting the former Japanese imperial army. Films produced in the 1990s and later very often portrayed the atrocities committed by the Japanese army.

Figure 4 Number of Films by Year of Production

5.Conclusion

The analysis shows that information on Japan disseminated by CCTV has two major distinctive characteristics. TV news programs show less sensationalized coverage compared to coverage on the Web and by newspaper media. In relation to the anti-Japanese movement, the TV media did not play a role in fanning opposition but was in fact a major player in regulation.

On the other hand, the TV media has broadcast a large number of war-related films. With young generations of Chinese with no memory of the past war making up the majority in China, the image of Japan remains focused on "atrocities" and "aggression." The impact of war films broadcast on TV on the Chinese mine cannot be denied.

Chinese TV media is under stricter governmental control compared to other media. In view of the importance the Chinese government places on the stability of relations with Japan, it is forced to become cautious on television coverage of Japan. As a result of this, communication gap is widening with other media enjoying greater freedom in expression.

Moreover, the TV media continues to function as a tool for propaganda. The large number of war films broadcast especially this year is not unrelated to the government's propaganda policy. Although it was not aimed at agitation, it cannot be denied that this action further aggravated public opinion toward Japan as a result.

The foremost problem in communication of Japan-related information by the Chinese TV media is the minimal attention paid to communicating the realities of Japanese society today. Japanese representation in the media is restricted to certain politicians and the former imperial army, with programs rarely featuring the ordinary lives of the Japanese. For this reason, the Chinese image toward Japan is susceptible to bias.

Although dramatic improvement in this respect requires a wide variety of factors, such as improvement of the sociopolitical situation and improvement of the media environment in China, Japan also is required to make greater effort to strengthen communication of its information via TV.

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Profile

Professor Liu Zhiming
He is Chief Researcher at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, specializing in mass communications, since 1998. Previously he was a researcher in journalism at Renmin University of China and an assistant professor at Kobe University. His research focuses on the effects of the growth of the Internet in China on the mass media, the language environment and language awareness. He is the author of Principles of Televisionology (1993) and The Chinese Mass Media and Images of Japan (1998).

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